Learning Theories Field Experience

As instructional technology specialists, we not only need to know how to teach, know our content area, and know what technologies are available. We also need to understand how our students are learning. We can’t just throw technology at them and expect them to learn. If we just feed them information without taking their needs and learning styles into account, the information will just go in one ear and out the other. 

I think in the future I will use these theories in my classroom to help me come up with new and exciting activities that I might often overlook or forget about, like KWLs and inquiry based learning for instance.  

On my school visit I witnessed evidence of the learning theories in many activities. I saw active and collaborative learning, and students setting their own goals. However, I feel as though many of these learning activities are just things that good teachers do automatically, and they don’t recognize that it is attached to a learning theory.

The technology instruction I saw did not include evidence of the learning theories. It was not active, inquiry based, or collaborative. I think it would take a different mindset to teach a traditional “computer/technology” class actively and collaboratively. It is too easy to get stuck in the rut of “each student sitting at their own computer working silently and independently on their own assignment.”  

Cognitivism Matrix

Required Elements		Information Presented
		Cognitivism	Constructivism
Brief History		1. 1956-Symposium on Information Theory 2. Replaced Behaviorism as the primary theory of the time 3. 1990s-Rejection that computers and the mind were the same 4. Cognitive Revolution in the 1950s 5. Artificial Intelligence	1. Goes back to Socrates’ dialogues about weak thinking 2. Piaget and Dewey’s childhood development theories 3. Dewey believed education should be grounded in real experiences 4. Bruner created curriculum based on learning on current knowledge 5. Papert’s work led to use of computers in the theory
Brief Description		The belief that learning is created through experiences and development of cognitive abilities	The belief that learning is an active, constructive process where we are creators of our own knowledge
Key Principles		1. Students group information and are active participants in the learning process 2. Behavior is based on beliefs and reasoning 3. Explores mental processes 4. The mind constructs memory, sensory and information processing 5. Knowledge is acquired, processed, stored, retrieved, and activated by the learner	1. Pose problems of relevance to students 2. Structure learning around primary concepts 3. Seek and value students’ point of view 4. Adapt instruction to address student beliefs 5. Assess student learning in context to teaching
Theorists & Contributions		1. Merill’s Component Display Theory 2. Reigeluth’s Elaboration Theory 3. Scandura’s Structural learning	1. Vygotsky’s Social Development Theory 2. Lave and Wenger’s Communities of Practice 3. Dewey’s Theory of meaningful situations
Goals for Instruction		1. Teach metacognitive skills 2. Teach students to learn, think, remember, and motivate themselves 3. Spiral Curriculum 4. Activate Prior Knowledge 5. Facilitate student's curiosity	1. Inquiry Based 2. Multiple Intelligence 3. Collaborative Learning 4. Teacher guides student learning 5. Students actively explore new information
Keywords to describe the learning process		1. Schema 2. Information Processing 3. Information Mapping 4. Mental Models 5. Symbol Manipulation	1. Anchored instruction 2. Cognitive apprenticeship 3. Learning as an experience 4. Problem based learning 5. Vygotsky's Zone of Proximal Learning
How Learning Takes Place		1. At developmental stages 2. Like a computer: with specific inputs 3. Solving problems 4. With adult/peer assistance 5. Experiences	1. Learning is Constructed 2. Learning is Active 3. Learning is Reflective 4. Learning is Collaborative 5. Learning is Inquiry Based
Instructional strategies How Marzano’s 9 Instructional Strategies are best be applied for each theory	Similarities & Differences	Students create a KWL including similarities and differences as well as personal connections to activate their schema before starting new units	Students create a Venn Diagram comparing two topics of their choice that interest them
	Summarizing & Note-taking	Students will select a topic they have studied in the past to continue to research and create a mind map/ web of the information they find	Students work together to research a topic of mutual interest and record information in a way that makes sense to them
	Reinforcing effort & Providing recognition	Students will be built up for the good work they do so they can primarily use intrinsic motivation	Students will provide constructive feedback and positive comments to each other to build their confidence
	Homework & Practice	Students are given a topic of interest to them and they need to come up with symbols to go with each concept to create personal meaning and then they practice those concepts in relation to their symbols	Students are given a topic to practice and do for homework and they are allowed to use any representation they want to show the information they have practiced
	Nonlinguistic representations	Students create art and music to go with the facts they must learn	Students can work together to create a project where the medium is their choice so they can choose how to represent their findings
	Cooperative Learning	Students will work together on a topic in which the students choose what roles each person will perform in the group project	Students will work together on a topic given by the teacher and the teacher will facilitate the group and assign roles and assignments for each student to explore
	Setting Objectives & Providing feedback	Students will set goals for themselves and monitor their progress towards those goals	Students will provide feedback to each other in addition to the teacher providing feedback
	Generating & testing hypotheses	Students will choose their own topics of exploration	Students will explain their thinking aloud in collaborative groups
	Questions, Cues, & Advance organizers	Students will use mind mapping and generate questions to research that they have had in the past to activate their schema	Students will work together to answer higher level questions and then explore those topics in any way they choose
Technology Integration		1. Scaffolding- differentiation in small groups with computers 2. Digital KWLs to activate prior knowledge 3. Student choice in internet research topics 4. Information mapping with Webspiration 5. Use digital slideshows of pictures to discuss students’ experiences and beliefs relating to a topic	1. Multiple Intelligences- Learning Centers: Computers 2. Inquiry based learning- Gather data using the internet 3. Inquiry based learning- Use of thinking maps: Webspiration 4. Multiple Intelligences- Create a Smartboard presentation 5. Multiple Intelligences- Music Center: GarageBand
Key Resources for each theory.		1. http://mennta.hi.is/starfsfo lk/solrunb/cognitiv.htm 2. http://www.simplypsychol ogy.org/bruner.html 3. http://www.learning-theories.com/cognitivism.html	1. http://www.learning-theories.com 2. http://www.teach-nology.com/currenttrends/constructivism/ 3. http://www.thirteen.org/edon line/concept2class/constructivism/index.html

Cognitivism Web

Here is the link to the Cognitivism web that Amanda and I made:

http://www.webspirationclassroom.com/view/1246256a6741

Cognitivism Annotated Bibliography

Annotated Bibliography

Cognitivism:  Amanda Galvan & Christie Cutshall

         Cognitivism. Retrieved November 12, 2012, from Learning Theories Knowledgebase website: http://www.learning-theories.com/cognitivism.html

This website has an overview of all of the different learning theories and models. It discusses how Cognitivism is a paradigm that needs to be continually explored. The website discusses several different theorists associated with Cognitivism. Some of these include M. D. Merrill and his Component Display Theory (CDT), Charles Reigeluth and his Elaboration Theory, and Jerome Bruner  who was moving toward cognitive constructivism. The website also talks about how in the 1960s Cognitivism replaced Behaviorism as the primary theory. People thought Behaviorism looked at people as programmed animals. Cognitivism says people are individual beings that require experiences to learn.

Cooper, P. A. (1993). Paradigm shifts in designed instruction. Educational Technology, 33(5), 12-19.

In this article, Cooper addresses Cognitivism and the changing technologies available to aid in cognitivist theory. One such technology is Computer Assisted Instruction (CAI). This CAI addresses differentiation. A difference Cooper explains between Cognitivism and it’s predecessor Behaviorism, is that Cognitivism believes it is important to address different learners differently, and not as one collective. In the past, the biggest constraint is that the instructional design models available did not support cognitively based activities.

Friesen, N., & Feenberg, A. (2007). ‘Ed Tech in Reverse’: Information technologies and the cognitive revolution. Educational Philosophy & Theory, 39(7), 720-736. doi:10.1111/j.1469-5812.2007.00314.x

Friesen and Feenberg respond to the 50th year of the cognitive revolution and how it is being replaced with a communicative, cultural, and technological Internet 'revolution.' The article outlines the history of the cognitive revolution as beginning at a symposium on Information Technology, resulting in the synergy of fields such as psychology, linguistics, computer science, philosophy, neuroscience, and anthropology, and transforming into a study on Artificial Intelligence to provide a model for human learning. Cognitivism is defined as effective processing, representation, and structuring of information cognitively. Artificial Intelligence and Artificial Intelligence in Reverse indicated that computer processing mirrored the mental processes of learners. Although the article provides in-depth information about the development and dissipation of Artificial Intelligence, it is clearly stated that no computer system has the capability to accurately portray the complexity of the human mind and its cognitive processes. There are examples of technology and software that can be used in the classroom including communication tools, portfolios, online tutors, and games.

Hung, D. (2001). Theories of Learning and Computer-Mediated Instructional Technologies. Educational Media International, 38(4), 281-87.

Hung outlines the different learning theories and how instructional applications differ between the theories. There are many charts organized to clearly and concisely outline some of the differences between instruction based on behaviorism, cognitivism, constructivism, and social constructivism. Hung discusses how the instructional context may determine which instructional strategy should be applied. Specifically, strategies and technology related to cognitivism includes researching using the Internet and database and viewing online tutorials. This application is based on the theory's emphasis on remembering rules, strategies, reproducing, and elaborating.

         Kristinsdóttir, S. B. Cognitivism. Retrieved November 12, 2012, from From Theory to Practice website: http://mennta.hi.is/starfsfolk/solrunb/cognitiv.htm

Kristinsdóttir discusses Piaget and his importance to Cognitivism. He wrote about human stages of cognitive development. These include sensorimotor (0-2 years), preoperational (2 years-7 years), concrete operational (7 years-11 years), and formal operational (11+ years.) Piaget emphasized the importance of educators being aware of a child’s thought process. The end goal, according to Piaget, is to create individuals who are discoverers. Jerome Bruner brought in the idea that there was a connection between a child’s development and their environment.

McLeod, S. A. (2008). Bruner - Learning Theory in Education. Retrieved from http://www.simplypsychology.org/bruner.html

This site presents Jerome Bruner's contribution to cognitivism. It outlines his three modes of representation-enactive representation, iconic representation, and symbolic representation and emphasizes that students at a young age can learn any material so long as the instruction is organized and effective. Students are born active learners and problem solvers. They do benefit from the assistance of adults as discussed in his idea of scaffolding. Bruner believes in the spiral curriculum so that students learn sophisticated material in a simplified way and material is revisited to add more complexity. Students are active learners that benefit from adults helping them find relationships between information. There is also a section comparing Vygotsky's theory of cognitivism to that of Bruner. The main difference is that Bruner indicates that learning is continuous and gradual, while Vygotsky emphasizes that children can only learn when developmentally ready.

McLeod, S. A. (2009). Jean Piaget | Cognitive Theory. Retrieved from http://www.simplypsychology.org/piaget.html

This site provides information about Jean Piaget and his contribution to cognitivism. There is a brief history of his theories and his research including his interest in how young children's logic and reasoning differs from that of adults. Piaget's Theory seeks to explain the processes required as a child develops reasoning and the ability to hypothesize. The three basic components of Piaget's Cognitive Theory include schemas, processes of equilibrium, assimilation, and accommodation, and stages of development--sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational. There are videos, diagrams, charts, and lectures that elaborate on the developmental stages and basic components of Piaget's Cognitive Theory. Although Piaget studied child development and not learning, learning strategies are discussed. Specific strategies that could be based on Piaget's Theory include using discovery learning, collaboration, differentiation through pre-assessments and individualization, problem solving, and focusing on the learning process more than the end product. Piaget emphasizes that learning and development are based on the basic mental systems that children are born with instead of environmental and cultural influences.   

Muskingum College (Ed.). (1997). History of cognitive psychology. Retrieved November 14, 2012, from http://www.muskingum.edu/~psych/psycweb/history/cognitiv.htm

This website was compiled by a university psychology class all about the history of cognitivism. It describes many famous contributors to the field of Cognitivism. It goes as far back as 18th century Empiricists such as George Berkeley, David Hume, and JS Mill. It also gives background information on Skinner and his Behaviorist theory. There are also more modern psychologists listed like Noam Chomsky, George Miller, and Allen Newell. The turning point for cognitive psychology was believed to be Chomsky’s review of Skinner’s previous texts. Chomsky’s critique caused a lot of inquiry in the psychology field.

         Siemens, G. (2004, December 12). Connectivism: A learning theory for the digital age. Retrieved November 12, 2012, from E Learn Space website: http://www.ingedewaard.net/papers/connectivism/2005_siemens_ALearningTheoryForTheDigitalAge.pdf

In this article, Siemens examines the limits on not only cognitivism, but also behaviorism, and constructivism. He summarizes Cognitivism as taking a computer information processing model: learning is viewed as a process of inputs in short term memory, then stored for long term memory. The cognitivist learning process is that in which symbols we create are stored for long term memory. According to Siemens, Cognitivism does not try to address organizational knowledge. He also states that learning theories, such as Cognitivism, are only concerned with the process of learning and not concerned with the value of what is being learned.

Yilmaz, K. (2011). The Cognitive Perspective on Learning: Its Theoretical Underpinnings and Implications for Classroom Practices. Clearing House, 84(5), 204-212. doi:10.1080/00098655.2011.568989

This article provides a brief history of cognitivism, cognitive theorists, and different teaching models that correspond with this learning theory. The article clearly mentions that cognitivism was a response to the lack of attention to the mental processes involved in behaviors observed by behaviorists. Cognitivism focuses on how learners acquire, process, store, retrieve, and activate knowledge throughout the learning process. Some teaching methods include cognitive apprenticeship, reciprocal teaching, anchored instruction, inquiry learning, discovery learning, and problem-based learning. Each of these methods emphasizes that students be active in the learning process so that they can form their own knowledge and experiences with the content. Although the article discusses the works of many cognitive theorists, it goes into detail about the theories of both Piaget and Vygotsky. Piaget offered the ideas of accommodation, assimilation, and schema. Vygotsky's work focused more on the relationship between social interactions and mental processes. The Zone of Proximal Development encourages teachers to bridge the gap between student's current level and their potential with teacher assistance. This article discusses theoretical background and history and the corresponding classroom instruction strategies.